Linguistics 1 Grammar seminar 6 Structural variation English 1 HEN100 Linguistics 1 HEN102 Elisabeth Wulff Sahlén elisabeth.wulff-sahlen@mdh.se

Overview of presentation Basic word order and structural variation Types of structural variation passivization (6.9) inversion (7.4) fronting (7.7) existential there (7.7) extraposition (7.7) clefting (7.7) ellipsis (7.9, 8.7) Numbers in brackets refer to Ballard, The Frameworks of English.

Basic word order The basic word order in English corresponds to an active declarative clause, e.g: Grissom plays tennis. S V Od SVO also includes SVC or any examples of SV + obligatory elements, e.g: Grissom is clever. S V Cs Optional adverbials do not affect the basic word order, e.g: Yesterday, Grissom played tennis. A S V O English is an S V O language!

However, the basic word order can be altered in a number of ways to fit the context, or to create some desired effect. When that happens, we speak of structural variation, i.e. variations on the basic sentence structure. Let’s take a look at 3 reasons for not using a basic SVO sentence…

Why structural variation? Information flow You don’t want to start a sentence with new information. That makes it harder on the reader/listerner, e.g: : A brand new car is in the garage. Instead, introduce the new information by starting the sentence with a few familiar words: : There is a brand new car in the garage.

Why structural variation? Weight You don’t want to start a sentence with a really heavy (i.e. long and complex) element. That makes it harder on the reader/listener. For example: : That agent Cooper and his team managed to solve the case is no surprise. Start with something light and move the long subject toward the end of the sentence: : It is no surprise that agent Cooper and his team managed to solve the case.

Why structural variation? Focus The basic sentence structure typically has end-focus, but no special emphasis: 1) Warrick killed a thug this morning. Sometimes you want to place more focus on a particular piece of information: It was Warrick who killed a thug this morning. It was a thug Warrick killed this morning. It was this morning Warrick killed a thug. Focus = most important content.

Even though the active declarative sentence is the most common structure in English, many of the sentences we produce – in speech or writing – will have a different structure. Let’s take a look at some common types of structural variation! Not sure what a declarative sentence is? Taka a look in your course book, p. 149!

passivization (6.9) In an active clause... the subject performs the action of the verb and the object is affected by the action: 1) A suspect bit Greg. S V Od In a passive clause... The subject is the one affected by the action: 2) Greg was bitten by a suspect. S V A They mean the same thing, but something is different. What?

passivization – how to do it A foreign drugs gang killed Irish crime boss S Od Irish crime boss was killed by a foreign drugs gang S Agent A Move the object of the active clause into subject position. The VP in the active clause is transformed into the passive voice by using a form of BE + past participle (e.g. killed -> was killed) The subject of the active clause is turned into a by-phrase (agent adverbial) or deleted. ACTIVE PASSIVE

passivization (6.9) Need extra practice on how to identify passive sentences? Click on the image below to acces the exercises on the Internet Grammar of English! (Return to the presentation by using the left arrow in your browser.)

subject -verb inversion (7.4) Full inversion = entire VP precedes S (V + S) Are you ready? V S Cs The basic word order: You are ready S V Cs Inversion is used to create interrogative sentences!

subject-operator inversion (7.4) Operator = the first auxiliary in a VP Also called partial inversion= operator precedes S; rest of VP follows S: (Vop. + S + V) 1. Do you speak French? Vop S V O Barely had the “back to school” offers been cleared from the shelves before the traditional Christmas stuff appeared in their place. (the ”back to school” offers had barely been cleared from the shelves before....) An interrogative sentence S = underlined V = bold

Fronting (7.7) An item that would normally follow the verb is moved to the front of the sentence: 1. John’s theory, I simply do not understand. (I simply do not understand John’s theory) 2. Sick have I become. (I have become sick.) 3. Whether I passed the exam, I’m not sure. (I’m not sure whether I passed the exam.) Starting a sentnece with an adverbial is normally not considered fronting. Why? Fronted Od Fronted Cs Fronted postmodifier (in AdjP)

Existential there (7.7) Existential there is inserted in the subject slot to introduce an indefinite NP and the real subject is placed after the verb. States the existence of something. A car is in the garage. -> There is a car in the garage. S dummy S real S The real subject still controls the verb. See what happens if you change it to ”two cars”!

Extraposition (7.7) A clausal subject is moved to the final position in the sentence, and the dummy pronoun it is inserted into the subject slot. That Sarah left surprised everyone. S V Od It surprised everyone that Sarah left. S V Od extraposed S Anticipatory it is another dummy subject. Somebody needs to fill the subject slot in English!

clefting (7.7) One clause is split (cleft/cleaved) into two clauses giving extra focus to one constituent . 2 major types (there are more...) It-clefts Wh-clefts We will only look at it-clefts

it-clefts (7.7) consist of the pronoun it + a form of the verb BE the focused constituent a subclause introduced by that, which/who or Ø It was Warrick who killed a thug this morning. It was a thug Warrick killed this morning. It was this morning that Warrick killed a thug. (Warrick killed a thug this morning.) Sentences that exhibit extraposition and it-clefts both start with the dummy pronoun it. Make sure you know how to distinguish between them!

Ellipsis... (7.9, 8.7) ...occurs when something is left out of a structure, often because of co-ordination. The omitted element is recoverable from the context. Mac lives in NY and Grissom (- - -) in Las Vegas. lives 2. Stella went from one store to the next (- - -). store 3. Are you going to the party? No, I’m not (- - -). going to the party Ellipsis is a way of avoiding repetition.

For next seminar Do Grammar assignment on Structural variation (available on Blackboard). Do the old exam you received from your teacher at grammar seminar 6. Bring your answers to class. See you next week for a review of the entire linguistics course!