Ten Key Factors that Influence Successful Bilingualism and Multilingualism Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. Instituto de Enseñanza y Aprendizaje (IDEA) Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador Know-it-all passport Geneva-Lausanne November 1-2, 2011

Today’s focus Background Identify key questions that relate to foreign language learning. Game: Myths of Multilingualism State of the research Questions and general discussion

Background Master’s from Harvard University in International Education and Development and doctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University (cross-disciplinary approach comparing findings in neuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, cultural anthropology and linguistics). Director of the Institute for Research and Educational Development, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador. Author of Raising Multilingual Children (2001), The Multilingual Mind (2003), and Living Languages (2008). Teacher (pre-kindergarten through university) with 22 years of comparative research based on family case studies (Japan, Ecuador, USA, Canada, France, Switzerland, Germany). Three children (raised in English, Spanish, German and French).

Cognitive benefits: Social benefits: Economic benefits: Personal benefits: Communication benefits: Cultural benefits: Academic benefits: The Benefits of Bilingualism that Transfer to Trilingualism Enhanced higher thinking skills (metalinguistic awareness, creativity, sensitivity to communication). Integration, appreciation of other cultures Marketability of bilingual skills, government- and business- recognized need. Psychological well-being, self confidence, sense of belonging, enhanced identity with roots. Literacy in three languages enables access to wider literature and a wider communication network of family, international links. Greater tolerance, less racism, bigger intercultural sense. Easier to learn the third language, increased curriculum achievement--impact on other subjects. Linguist John Maher, of International Christian University in Tokyo (2002). “The Practical Linguist: Make the most of the bilingual advantage.” The Daily Yomiuri. Japan. Reformatted by Tokuhama-Espinosa 2005.

Bilingual children learn have higher levels of abstraction at earlier ages than monolinguals. (1) Bilinguals learn to manage language rules at an earlier age than monolinguals. (2) Bilinguals learn to inihibit (ignore information calling for attention) earlier and with faster speed thab monolinguals, which directly relates to executive funtions (3). Bilinguals use more of their brians than monolinguals (3). Bilinguals have greater working memory than monolinguals (4). (Neuro)linguistics: Benefits of bilingualism 1. Suzanne Flynn professor of linguistics and second-language acquisition at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Ellen Bialystok, professor of psychology at York University in Toronto. 2. Adele Diamond, director of the Center for Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Waltham. 3. Patricia Kuhl of the University of Washington . 4. Baddleley.

Our findings suggest that early bilingualism offers no disadvantages; on the contrary, young bilinguals may be afforded a linguistic and a cognitive advantage. Early dual language exposure is also key to skilled reading acquisition. Moreover, learning to read in two languages may afford an advantage to children from monolingual homes in key phoneme awareness skills vital to reading success. No disadvantages… Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20

…the study of the relationship between the brain and multilingualism is a very promising field indeed…Spectacular results include that in multilingual brains the onset of Alzheimer disease may be postponed by four years; multilingual brains process language differently; multilingual brains are different with respects to the way individuals have become bilingual. Research has shown that… Ellen Bialystok (Toronto), Jubin Abutalebi (Milano) and Katrien Mondt (Brussels) as cited in Pettito & Dunbar, 2009.

Family Language Goals We want our child to ____ speak well enough to be able to play with other children her/his age.  ____ speak well enough to visit with our relatives in X country. ____ speak well enough to be successful in school.  ____ read in both his/her first and second languages.  ____ read and write in both his/her first and second languages. ____ eventually read and write at university level in both languages.  ____ eventually be able to work in either language (understand, speak, read and write with equal ability).

Language Learner Profile Pre-referral questions: Can difficulties be explained by normal L2 acquisition process (length of time needed)? Are there any emotional problems/culture shock involved? Can problems be explained according to cross-cultural interference? Is there a significant gap between oral fluency and level of literacy? How does student’s performance compare with similar L2 learners at same grade level?

1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity) 2. Aptitude 3. Motivation 4. Strategy 5. Consistency 6. Oportunity and support (home, school, community) 7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages 8. Silblings 9. Gender 10. Hand-use as a refleciton of cerebral dominance for languages 11. …and…? The Ten Key Factors

Do you believe the statement is true or false? Why? (Origins: Statements made by teachers, doctors and parents I met while doing my research.) True and False Quiz

By learning more than one language a child can suffer brain overload. True or False? Nitsch, C., Franceschini, R., Lüdi, G., Radü, E.-W., 2006; Hirsch, 1997.

Some languages are easier to learn than others. True or False? Baker, 2004; Pinker, 2000.

Bilinguals are more creative than monolinguals. True or False? Ricardelli, 1992

Bilingualism can cause problems such as stuttering and dyslexia. True or False? Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.

It is impossible for an adult to learn a new language as fast as a child. True or False? Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.

It is impossible for an adult to learn a new language without an accent. True or False? Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.

True or False? When a child learns his languages from birth he is effectively learning them as two first languages.

Where are languages in the bilingual brain? Languages are separate and don’t overlap (“firewall model”). The second language is learned “on top of” the first. The two languages are separate but overlap in some areas (“overlap hypothesis”).

We found that bilingual adults exposed to two languages before age 5, process their two languages in overlapping language areas within the left hemisphere and, crucially, the same language areas universally observed in monolinguals… Overlap theory Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 6 of 20

Children who experience early, extensive, and systematic exposure to both of their languages quickly grasp the fundamentals of both of their languages and in a manner virtually identical to that of monolingual language learners. As adults, these bilingual individuals, in addition to their good behavioral performance on language tasks, also show that their brains are processing their two languages in a similar manner, and virtually identical to monolingual adults. Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20

Brain scans show that people brought up bilingual from birth have languages in the same area of the brain as monolinguals. People who learn languages after the first seven months or so actually use different areas for processing sounds, or simply do not perceive sounds which are not representative in their native language at all. Two languages in one brain: Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto, 2008; Fennell, Byers-Heinlein & Werker, 2006.

However, later-exposed bilinguals exhibit more bilateral activation, recruit more distributed frontal lobe tissue, including working memory and inhibitory areas, and frequently exhibit more cognitive effort as measured in analyses of their greater errors on the language behavioral tasks during scanning (Kim et al.; Wartenburger et al.; Weber-Fox & Neville; Perani et al., 1996). Thus, later bilingual exposure does change the typical pattern of the brain's neural organization for language processing, but early bilingual exposure does not. Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 6 of 20

“…early bilingual exposure yields a phonetic processing “bilingual advantage” (Norton, Baker & Petitto, 2003). Relative to monolinguals, bilingual babies show an increased sensitivity to a greater range of phonetic contrasts, and an extended developmental window of sensitivity for perceiving these phonetic contrasts relative to monolingual children…” Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 4-5 of 20

True or False? All people have the same area of their brain to speak different languages.

“Humans have a unique ability to learn more than one language-a skill that is thought to be mediated by functional (rather than structural) plastic changes in the brain. Here we show that learning a second language increases the density of grey matter in the left inferior parietal cortex and that the degree of structural reorganization in this region is modulated by the proficiency attained and the age at acquisition. This relation between grey-matter density and performance may represent a general principle of brain organization.” Mechelli, A.  and J. T. Crinion and U. Noppeney and J. Ashburner and R. S. Frackowiak and C. J. Price (2004).

True or False? It is not recommended that children learn literacy skills in two languages simultaneously.

“These findings further suggest that bilingual children should not experience difficulty with phonological word segmentation in two languages at the same time, a capacity that is crucial for language learning and, especially, for successful reading acquisition in two languages…” Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 5 of 20

“…children from monolingual homes in bilingual schools were better readers than language/age-matched monolingual children in monolingual schools…” Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20

Multiliteracy Skills Understand the use of the written word Learn the phonemic alphabet Acknowledge exceptions in sound to letter relation Acknowledge exceptions between languages Practice: Familiarity, Repetition and Frequency

1. Cummins (1981); 2. Gibbins (1999); 3. Corson (1993, 1995)

Full mastery of the new (later-exposed) language needs to occur in highly systematic and multiple contexts that are richly varied involving both home and community and, remarkably, can not be achieved through classroom instruction alone. Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 8 of 20

The general research findings examining trilinguals brains to date point to no pattern for multilingualism. True or False? Nitsch, Franceschini, Lüdi, Radü, n/d

True or False? Multilinguals are shown to be faster at working memory tasks than monolinguals. Baddeley, 2001

Bilingual students achieve higher results on English-language proficiency tests than their Anglophone, monolingual peers. True or False? Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994

A nine-year-old has the same size brain as an adult; therefore they learn foreign languages in the same way. True or False? Suddath, Christison, Torrey, Casanova & Weinberger, 1990.

The more languages you know, the easier it gets to learn an additional one. True or False? Government of Canada, 2003; University of Oxford, 2003

The quality of the first language impacts the quality of the second language, and the quality of the third language depends on the quality of the second language. True and False? Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994

Speaker’s level of proficiency: “There is a general consensus among researchers that language transfer is more likely to occur at lower levels of proficiency”_ when they use L1 or L2 to fill in language gaps in L3.

The Mother Tongue Dilemma The questions: Can a child develop strong second language skills if they have a weak mother tongue (as in when they come from poorer backgrounds and have not been properly schooled in the home language)? “Amount of exposure has a strong effect on the likelihood of both positive and negative language transfer…”1 Part of the answer: [Language] learners who have highly developed language skills (such as reading, writing and richness of vocabulary) in their native language will most likely find that these skills facilitate second language acquisition…”2 1. Dewaele, J. (2001). “Activation or inhibition? The interaction of L1, L2 and L3 on the language mode continuum”; 2. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .

Most of the world is monolingual. True or False? Nitsch, 2004

A child should first study his native language, then after he has mastered this, then learn a new one. A child who learns two languages simultaneously will be confused and have lower intelligence. A child with two languages will never feel completely secure in either. A bilingual child will always have identity problems and feel a lack of belonging to his cultures because he will never fully be a part of either. Bilinguals tend to translate from the weaker language to the stronger. True bilinguals never mix their languages. Myths… Gutierrez, s.f.; Kandolf, 1998; Narváez, 2009

All people who are bilingual from birth make excellent translators. True bilinguals never confuse their languages; if they do, they are actually semi-linguals. There are some language programs which can actually teach foreign languages in a matter of weeks or evn days, which means there is no reason, except for lack of motivation, that many people take years to learn another languaes. The ability to learn a foreign language is directly related to the level of intelligence of an individual. Bilinguals have split personalities. Older people can never become fully bilingual. Myths…. Gutierrez, s.f.; Kandolf, 1998; Narváez, 2009

The Ten Key Factors influencing successful bilingualism and multilingualism

1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity) 2. Aptitude 3. Motivation 4. Strategy 5. Consistency 6. Opprotunity and support (home, school, community) 7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages 8. Silblings 9. Gender 10. Hand-use as a refleciton of cerebral dominance for languages 11. …and…? The Ten Key Factors

1. First: 0 a 9 months (A window-and-a-half: 9 a 24-30 months) 2. Second : 4 a 8 years 3. Third: 8 years + (from old-age and back) Language Milestones* 2-3 Normal Mixing Stage 3-4 Labeling of Languages 5+ Cognizant of “translation concept”  4-10 “syntactic conservationism” *Remember that children can vary by as much as a year in either direction related to language development! 1. The Windows of Opportunity 

1. Cummins (1981); 2. Gibbins (1999); 3. Corson (1993, 1995)

Something one is born with Approximately 10% of the population Measuring MFLAT Gardner’s definition of “Intelligence” Levine’s neurodevelopmental constructs 2. Aptitude

Internal vs. External Positive vs. Negative 3. Motivation

Seven most practiced strategies Do not have to be simple They should be consistent (especially for younger children). 4. Strategy 5. Consistency

Sample Strategies

How many times a day does the child have the chance to use the target language(s) in a given day? At Home In School Within the Community Who takes responsibility for language learning? (The Child himself? The School? The Community? The Family?) 6. Opportuniy and Support

“Historical” vs. “Linguistic” relationships and languages Language Sub-Families Families Related languages are easier to learn. 7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages

Proto-Indo-European Lenguages Indo-Iraní Iraní (Persa, Kurdo) Indo-Aryan (Hindú, Urdu, Bengalí, Nepalés) Indo-Europeas Románicas (Francés, Español, Portugués, Italiano, Rumano) Holandés (Alemán, Inglés, Holandés, Danés, Sueco) Checa-Eslovaco (Checa, Eslovaco, Polaco, Serbo-Croata, Ucraniano, Ruso) Celta (Gaélico, Galés) Báltico (Lituano, Letón) Griego Albano Armenio Other European languages Ugrofinés (Finlandés, Húngaro, Estonio) Vasco Caucásico (Georgiano, Chechenio) Sample language families (Europe)

African languages Afro-Asian Semita (Árabe, Hebreo) Chádica Berebere Cushitic Egipcio Nilo-Sahariana (Masai) Niger-Congo Yoruba Bantú (Suahilí, Bantu) Khoisan (Nama) Sample language families (Africa)

Asian Pacific languages Dravídica (Tamil) Munda (Khmer, Vietnamita) Burushaski Altaico (Mongol, Turco, Tungús) Japonés Coreano Sino-Tibetano (Chino, Tibetano, Birmano) Thaís (Tailandés) Austroneasiano (Malayo, Bahasa, Hawaiano, Tagalos) Papua Aborigen Australiano Sample language families (Asia)

American languages Esquimal - Aleuta (Inuit, Groenlándico) Na-Deme Athabasken (Navajo) Algonquino (Otras lenguas indias nativas americanas) Iroquoian Siouan Uto-Azteca (Náhuatl , Quechua ) Quechua Tupí-Guaraní Jívaro Ticuna Sample language families (America)

Linguistic typologies Based on Greenberg, 1966, Typological Ensembles

There are roughly 2,500-6,000 lanagues in the world. The twelve most widely spoken languages with approximate number of native speakers are the following, totaling a little more than half of the world’s population: Native languages speakers

Positive influences Negative influences 8. Silblings

Are there differences between boys and girls (men and women) related to language? How are these measured? What does this imply in terms of children learning foreign languages? 9. Gender

Reflection of cerebral dominance 95% of right-handed people and 70% of left handed people are left hemisphere dominant for languages. What does this mean for teaching materials that are developed “for the majority”? 10. Hemispheric dominance for languages

11. What other factor is missing?

1. Timing and The Windows of Opportunity 2. Aptitude for Foreign Languages 3. Motivation 4. Strategy 5. Consistency 6. Opportunity and Support (Home, School and Community) 7. Language Typology and Similarities 8. Siblings 9. Gender 10. Hand Use 11. ???? The Ten Key Factors in Raising Multilingual Children Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2000

The Facts and Studies The single most important factor influencing successful language learning is the teacher. Cenoz and Lindsay (1994) highlight the important role of the teacher. 1. UNESCO. (July-Sept. 2003). The mother-tongue dilemma. Education Today Newsletter 2. Aarts and Verrhoeven (1999). "Literacy Attained in a Second Language Submersion Context." Applied Psycholinguistics 20(3): 377-394.). 3. Cenoz, J. and D. Lindsay (1994). "Teaching English in Primary School: A Project To Introduce a Third Language to Eight Year Olds." Language and Education 8(4): 201-210.

Program design should include: Ongoing assessment using multiple measures. Integrated schooling (all language learners together) High expectations by teachers Equal status of languages Healthy parent involvement Continuous staff development Second language taught through academic content Critical thinking across language program Activation of students' prior knowledge Respect for students' home language and culture Cooperative learning Interactive and discovery learning Intense and meaningful cognitive/academic development

Guidelines for Assessing Bilingual and Trillingual Children Assessment must be developmentally and culturally appropriate. The child's bilingual linguistic background must be taken into consideration in any authentic assessment of oral language proficiency. Bilingualism is a complex concept and includes individuals with a broad range of speaking, reading, writing, and comprehending abilities in each language. Furthermore, these abilities are constantly in flux. A fully contextual account of the child's language skills requires the involvement of parents and family members, the students themselves, teachers, and staff in providing a detailed picture of the context of language learning and the resources that are available to the child (Nissani, 1990). What is called for is a description of the child's language environment, of the extent to which significant others-adults or children-provide language assistance by modeling, expanding, restating, repeating, questioning, prompting, negotiating meaning, cueing, pausing, praising, and providing visual and other supports. Assessment of the child needs to take into account the entire context in which the child is learning and developing.

Seven observations of good multilingual programs* First, successful multilingual programs start foreign language instruction early, normally in elementary school. Second, successful multilingual programs teach through coherent, well-articulated frameworks, which are careful to scaffold their learning in a developmental style. Third, the successful multilingual schools typically enjoy strong leadership, and have enthusiastic backing from key stakeholders. Fourth, successful multilingual programs teach languages as core subjects, (unlike the American tendency to make foreign languages electives). *Elizabeth Clayton, Center for Applied Linguistics

Fifth, successful multilingual school teachers receive rigorous preparation and are trained how to manage students from different language backgrounds. They also make language a priority, giving it equal status with prestigious courses like Math, Physics and Core Language. Sixth, good multilingual programs creatively use technology in the classroom to increase interaction with native language speakers. Seventh, successful multilingual schools offered support for heritage language, or the child’s mother tongue

Ten additional characteristics of successful multilingual schools* Successful multilingual schools ensure that language basics, including phonemic awareness, phonic fluency, age appropriate vocabulary, text comprehension and grammar are taught explicitly. They emphasize good oral skills and encourage active, authentic language use by students. Successful multilingual schools integrate the student’s family in a positive way. Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2008

They use a variety of assessment tools and consider the product, the process and the progress of the student. Some of the most successful schools use thematic syllabi and work within dual-immersion structures in which all students take pride in their home language while learning a second or third. The most successful schools conduct linguistic and ethnic audits and know their clients (students) well. When possible, they hire staff that speak the home languages of the families they serve and make every effort to keep clear channels of communication.

Successful schools conduct regular teacher training to ensure that teachers keep an up to date toolbox of activities handy. They also have high expectations of their students. The best multilingual schools allow a portion of their budget to be invested in multilingual materials and media. Successful multilingual schools do their best to create a significant learning experiences, which relate new information to prior knowledge, and give students a certain level of autonomy (control and choice).

Questions? Thank you for coming!

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Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. IDEA – Instituto de Enseñanza y Aprendizaje Universidad San Francisco de Quito Casa Corona – Planta Baja Telf.: 297-1700 x 1338 o 297-1937 desarrolloprofesional@usfq.edu.ec ttokuhama@usfq.edu.ec www.educacionparatodos.com For more information: