Chief and council The word caste comes from the Portuguese word castas, meaning "pure." This Portuguese word expresses one of the most central values of Indian society: the idea of ritual purity. In India, however, the word varna, or "color," denotes the fourfold division of Indian society. The word varna may have been used because each of the four castes was assigned a specific color as its emblem.

Some scholars believe that, in its initial period, the caste system was flexible and it was merit and job based.

Since jati was so closely tied to occupation they often took the form of workers’ guilds that were able to powerfully represent the group’s interests Merchants and artisans established distinct jati based on their particular type of commerce or industry

Caste vs. individual

India has faced repeated invasions from outside the region, dating back to the Macedonian invasion by Alexander the Great. Examples include the Kambojas, believed to be of Indo-Scythian descent, who were retroactively assigned a social position in the Manusmriti.

For instance, in certain regions, producing each variety of cloth was the speciality of a particular sub-caste.

During the initial days of British East India Company's rules, caste privileges and customs were encouraged in the Bengal Army[27]. . It was contested at many places (a notable example is that the Koris of UP who said they won't accept water from Brahmins, and so should be placed higher than them). Because it was met with rampant controversies, arbitration was very common during those days. The most notable arbitration stories are: Caste status of Kayastha Caste status of Kurmi Caste status of Yadav It raised more questions than it answered and subsequent census records varied radically, making it free for all, after some time. The Act brought the term "Scheduled castes" into use, which was later clarified in The Government of India (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1936 which contained a list of scheduled castes.

Sparks flew in spring 2006 when the quotas were extended to university admissions: (“A recent government push to expand college admission and job quotas -- an Indian form of affirmative action for the lower castes - - has run into stiff opposition. Students have taken to the streets of New Delhi several times to protest the plan.”) Out of the 36,000 undergraduate seats at Delhi University, nearly 8,000 are reserved for lower-caste students. Many more will get that opportunity following a government decision sealed earlier this month that will dramatically increase the number of college seats reserved for lower castes, from the current 22.5 percent to 49.5 percent. (Spring 2006) Today an estimated 36 percent of the population falls under the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) category, the group receiving the new reservations. Currently, out of the 36,000 undergraduate seats at Delhi University, nearly 8,000 are reserved for lower-caste students. Today an estimated 36 percent of the population falls under the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) category, the group receiving the new reservations.)

Sparks flew in spring 2006 when the quotas were extended to university admissions: (“A recent government push to expand college admission and job quotas -- an Indian form of affirmative action for the lower castes - - has run into stiff opposition. Students have taken to the streets of New Delhi several times to protest the plan.”) Out of the 36,000 undergraduate seats at Delhi University, nearly 8,000 are reserved for lower-caste students. Many more will get that opportunity following a government decision sealed earlier this month that will dramatically increase the number of college seats reserved for lower castes, from the current 22.5 percent to 49.5 percent. (Spring 2006) Today an estimated 36 percent of the population falls under the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) category, the group receiving the new reservations.

In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, caste dharma is "the duty one has to perform" and "the law of one's being." Because of it, each person learns from an early age to overcome selfish desires and instead focus on group goals and ideals.

Decontextualised History Lecture Series: Lecture 2 Caste System: From Past to the Present Mr. Leslie Tay Ext 273 leslie@vs.moe.edu.sg © Leslie Tay 2009

Lecture Outline What is a “caste” Flexible Caste System? The Untouchables Subcastes: Jatis Rigid Caste System Expansion of the Caste System Caste Dominance Harijans or Scheduled Castes Historical Advantage of the Caste System British Rule and Caste System Independence and Untouchables The Reservation System Caste in India today Why does the system persist Conclusion

What is a “caste”? Close corporation, exclusive and rigorously hereditary Equipped with a certain traditional and independent organisation United in the celebration of certain festivals Bounded by common occupation and by practice of customs Endogamous

Caste System Repulsion Hierarchy Hereditary Elements of a Caste System “The leaders were permanently entrenched in their position of prestige and power merely by virtue of birth and thus had a vested interest to maintain the system…”

What is a “caste” Principle of social ordering called Varna Vyavastha introduced by the Aryans (c. 2000-1500BC) Idea of fourfold division of functions in society Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras said to have been separately created from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet respectively of the creator (Pursha Sukta, tenth book of the Rigveda)

Ranking of Functions by the Aryans

Caste system as different parts of the Creator “For the sake of prosperity of mankind, He (Brahma, the creator) caused the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya and the Sudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs and his feet.”

The Flexible Caste System? Ancient scriptures placed little importance in the caste system “I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn. Rig Veda 9.112.3” Vedic Period: No discrimination yet Shudras could hear the sacred words of the Vedas and fully participating in all religious rights, something which became totally banned in the later times

The Flexible Caste System? Later scriptures such as Bhagavad Gita and Manusmriti state that the four varnas are created by God. However, at the same time, the Gita says that one's varna is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's karma (work), not one's birth. One could migrate from one caste to other caste by changing one's profession. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins.

The Untouchables Some centuries later, the Aryans added the category of untouchables The untouchables performed dirty or unpleasant tasks such as butchering animals or handling dead bodies Such work made them become so polluted that their very touch could defile individuals of higher status

The Romans had their slaves, the Spartans their helots, the Britishers their Villains, the Americans their Negroes, the Germans their Jews; so the Hindus their Untouchables. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

The Untouchables

Subcastes (Jati) Until about the 6th Century, the four varnas were sufficient to maintain the desired social distinctions, but increased urbanization and specialization demanded a more complex hierarchy Jati emerged as subcastes Largely determined by occupation By the 18th and 19th Centuries there were several thousand jati Even untouchables had jati and some looked down on others as more polluted and miserable than themselves

Expansion of the Caste System As more people migrated to India, especially Turks and Muslim merchants, the caste system continued to provide order Immigrant groups gained recognition as distinct groups under the umbrella of the caste system Established codes of conduct both within their group and in their interactions with others

Expansion of the Caste System At first the caste system was confined to northern India where the Aryans had first entered As commercial relationships pushed south, the caste system took hold there as well By the 11th Century the caste system was the principal basis of social organization in southern India

Caste Dominance Four important elements of dominance: Numerical strength Depends on unity of caste Economic and political power Gives access to modern education and profitable occupations Ritual status Western education and occupation Invest a caste with prestige

Historical Advantage of the Caste System While Caste is nowadays seen by instances that render it anachronistic, in its original form the caste system served as an important instrument of order in a society in which mutual consent rather than compulsion ruled; where the ritual rights as well as the economic obligations of members of one caste or sub-caste were strictly circumscribed in relation to those of any other caste or sub-caste; where one was born into one's caste and retained one's station in society for life; where merit was inherited, where equality existed within the caste A well-defined system of mutual interdependence through a division of labour created security within a community.

Historical Advantage of the Caste System Preservation of order in society through the use of institutional stratification of social groups Integration of foreigners and invading forces into Indian culture by assigning a caste to them (a process that historian Jawaharlal Nehru referred to as "Indianization"): Most invaders were swiftly assimilated into ancient Indian society by assigning them specific castes.

Historical Advantage of the Caste System Caste system can be said to have preserved ancient cultural values in Indian society. The caste system played an influential role in shaping economic activities. The caste system functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring the division of labour, providing for the training of apprentices and, in some cases, allowing manufacturers to achieve narrow specialisation. Philosophers argue that the majority of people would be comfortable in stratified endogamous groups and have been in ancient times. Membership in a particular caste, with its associated narrative, history and genealogy would instill in its members a sense of group accomplishment and cultural pride.

Caste System and British Rule Initially, the British strengthened the caste system. They gave the Brahmins back special privileges the Muslim rulers had taken away. But, British law courts disagreed with the discrimination against the lower castes. Many believe that the lack of British respect for lower’s caste traditions was one of the reasons behind the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Great Rebellion of 1857

Caste System and British Rule During British rule, the reservation of seats for the "Depressed Classes" was incorporated into the Government of India Act 1935, which went into force in 1937. British Census Officers determined caste hierarchy based on the principle, e.g. someone who accepts food and water from another person but the other person does not reciprocate the same way, then the other person is superior to the former

Harijans or “Scheduled Castes” In the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi made it one of his life's goals to bring the untouchables back into Hindu society. He renamed them the harijans, or "children of God" Tried to convince orthodox Hindus to admit them into their temples and their everyday lives.

Harijans or “Scheduled Castes” However, other leaders doubted that upper-caste Hindus would ever treat the harijans as equals. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, a distinguished scholar who had been born an "untouchable," was a leading spokesman for this view. The scheduled castes, he said, should withdraw from Hinduism altogether and join another religion, such as Buddhism, which does not recognize caste distinctions.

Independence and Untouchables After India became an independent nation in 1947, its new constitution outlawed the practice of "untouchability." The constitution also established affirmative action programs to ensure that the scheduled castes would have access to higher education and better jobs. Because of these programs, there has been a marked improvement in the status of the scheduled castes.

The Reservation System In 1950, the writers of independent India's Constitution adopted a policy of reserving jobs in the government and seats in state-funded educational institutes for the "scheduled castes and tribes“. India sets aside 22.5% of its government jobs for the lowest castes, and an additional 27% for what are called the other "backward" castes, the next step up in the caste system. Sparks flew in spring 2006 when the Indian government pushed to extend the same quotas to university admissions. Students took to the streets of New Delhi to protest the plan.

The Reservation System Responses to the reservation system

Is it Fair? India’s constitution guarantees “equal rights.” Article 14 says that the state gives to every person “equality before the law” and “equal protection of the laws.” Article 15 prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, etc. Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment, etc.

Is it Fair? At the same time, the constitution provides for a “reservation system.” Article 46 says “The state shall promote with special care the education and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.” Respond: Does India’s reservation system contradict (go against) her constitution’s promise of “equal rights”?

Caste in India Today In reality, caste ranking and caste-based interaction continue More prominent in the countryside than in urban settings and more in the realms of kinship and marriage than in less personal interactions “The National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) is part of a wider struggle to abolish ‘untouchability’ and to ‘cast out caste’. ‘Untouchability’ and caste discrimination continue to be a brutal reality for more than 160 million Dalits living in India today, despite the fact that more than half a century has passed since India was born as a ‘democratic’ and independent state.”

Dalits killed for converting to Islam There are 231 rapes and 51 murdered last year Every hour two Dalits are assaulted, Every day three Dalit women are raped, Every day two Dalits are murdered & two Dalit houses are burnt in India

Why does the system persist? Today, the caste system continues to be the main form of government in villages throughout India. In large part, its continuity depends on two central Hindu concepts: caste dharma and karma. In Hindu society, caste dharma is considered to be a divine law. Many Hindus believe that this obligation tends to enhance the spiritual development of the individual.

Why does the system persist? The concept of karma helps to explain differences in status that might otherwise be considered unfair. Because one's caste membership is thought to be a result of actions in a previous life, a person tends to accept this status rather than complain about it. By the same token, a successful performance of caste duty will improve one's karma and perhaps lead to improved status in the next life.

Why does the system persist? The caste system returns certain practical benefits to the individual as mentioned earlier Being a member of a jati gives each person a sense of identity and of belonging to a well-defined group. The members of a jati have much in common. They share a job specialty and abide by the same rules concerning diet and religion. Because of the rules of endogamy, each jati is also an extended family, for most members are related by blood.

Conclusion Nature of Caste System Historical, social and religious context of “casteism” Growing improvement of situation in modernisation of India Human rights issues Difficult but necessary, especially in rural areas

“Il n’y a rien de barbare et de sauvage en cette nation, somin que chacun appele barbarie ce qui n’est pas de son usage” “I do not find that there is anything barbaric or savage about this nation, unless we are to call barbarism whatever differs from our own custom” Montaigne, Essais, 1580

Conclusion End Thank You!